Three Arab countries rank among Africa’s biggest water consumers

Africa required approximately 347 cubic kilometres of water in 2020 to meet demand across households, agriculture, industry, energy production, mining and livestock, marking a 26% increase compared with 2010, according to a study recently published in Nature.

The research provides the most detailed map to date of water demand across the continent, highlighting significant differences between countries, river basins and economic sectors.

Davy Vanham, a researcher at the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the study’s lead author, said one of the main challenges had been the lack of detailed geographical data showing where water demand is concentrated and which sectors account for it. Most existing data are either outdated or aggregated at the national level, masking substantial variations between cities, agricultural regions and river basins.

Vanham explained that the study does not simply measure how much water was actually used. Instead, it estimates water demand, defined as the amount required to meet different needs if sufficient water resources and infrastructure were available.

Where does Africa’s water go?

The researchers compiled data covering six major sectors: municipal water supply, irrigation, livestock, manufacturing, electricity generation and mining. They then mapped water demand at a high spatial resolution, with grid cells reaching approximately 4.5 kilometres at the equator for some sectors.

According to Vanham, the analysis drew on information from more than 450 water utilities, 46 agricultural crops, 2,534 power plants and 682 mines, alongside livestock and industrial datasets. The researchers compared estimates for 2020 with those for 2010 to assess how water demand had evolved over the decade.

The findings show that irrigation accounts for by far the largest share of Africa’s water demand, requiring approximately 225 cubic kilometres annually, equivalent to 65% of the continental total. Municipal water demand comes second at 17%, followed by electricity generation at 10%, manufacturing at 4%, livestock at 3% and mining at 1%.

Egypt recorded the highest water demand in Africa, at approximately 91.7 cubic kilometres annually, followed by Nigeria, Sudan and Morocco. Egypt also had the continent’s highest irrigation water demand, estimated at 69.3 cubic kilometres.

The study found relatively high levels of access to piped water in several North African countries, reaching 99% in Egypt, 92% in Tunisia and 78% in Morocco. However, some urban areas also recorded high per-capita water demand. In Egypt, for instance, the Damietta water utility reported average demand of approximately 315 litres per person per day.

Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa and Algeria were among the countries with the highest industrial water demand, while gas-fired power plants accounted for a substantial share of electricity-related water demand in North Africa.

Estimates, not absolute measurements

The researchers found that water demand in parts of North Africa and southern Africa approaches or exceeds available renewable water resources when sufficient supplies are reserved to sustain rivers and ecosystems.

Other regions, including the Congo Basin, have relatively abundant water resources, yet millions of residents still lack access to piped water because of inadequate infrastructure.

The team estimates that approximately 717 million Africans lacked access to piped water in 2020, although many lived in areas that were not naturally water-scarce.

Vanham said the Nile Basin illustrates how assessments of water stress can vary depending on the amount of water that must remain available to sustain ecosystems.

Under a less stringent environmental-flow requirement, the basin could theoretically meet its annual water demand. However, when a stricter environmental standard is applied, demand rises to approximately 131% of available water resources.

This demonstrates how estimates of water shortages can change significantly depending on the volume of water reserved for rivers and their ecosystems.

The researchers cautioned that their figures should not be interpreted as definitive measurements of actual water withdrawals. The study combines observed data, modelling and assumptions because reliable measurements of water extraction remain limited across much of Africa.

Some industrial estimates relied on indicators developed in other regions where African data were unavailable. Satellite images of nighttime lights, which were used to help estimate industrial activity, may also fail to capture informal industries in rural areas.

Furthermore, the assessment of renewable water resources did not include non-renewable groundwater reserves beneath the Sahara Desert. For these reasons, the researchers describe their findings as the best available harmonised estimates rather than absolute figures.

The study highlights two distinct challenges facing African countries: managing growing water demand in regions where resources are already under pressure, and expanding infrastructure in areas where water is physically available but remains inaccessible to large parts of the population.